Effects of irrigation technology on energy efficiency, carbon footprint, and water scarcity footprint in silage maize production: A three-year field study

Abstract

Efficient use of water and energy resources is increasingly important for sustaining agricultural production under growing food demand and climate change pressures. This study evaluated the effects of irrigation technology on energy performance, input-related carbon footprint, and water scarcity footprint in irrigated silage maize production. Field-based data were collected over three consecutive growing seasons (2022–2024) from a large commercial farm in Ankara Province, Central Anatolia, Türkiye, where silage maize was produced under sprinkler and center pivot irrigation systems. Energy performance was quantified using an input–output energy analysis framework, input-related carbon footprint was estimated using emission factors associated with agricultural inputs and field operations, and water scarcity footprint was assessed using the AWARE characterization factor for Türkiye. Based on three-year mean values, center pivot irrigation increased dry matter yield by 1.48%, energy use efficiency by 16.89%, energy productivity by 16.88%, and net energy by 3.27%, while reducing specific energy by 14.38% compared with sprinkler irrigation. The input-related carbon footprint per unit of dry matter yield decreased by 22.22% under center pivot irrigation. In contrast, the mean water scarcity footprint was identical between the two systems, and its pattern varied by year: sprinkler irrigation showed lower values in 2022 and 2023, whereas center pivot irrigation showed a lower value in 2024. Overall, center pivot irrigation improved energy performance and reduced input-related carbon footprint under the evaluated commercial farm conditions, while water scarcity footprint was mainly governed by irrigation water volume and the regional AWARE factor rather than irrigation technology alone. These findings provide field-based evidence for irrigation planning and resource-use assessment in semi-arid silage maize production systems.